Health New Media Res > Epub ahead of print
Ly-Le and Le: Navigating the infodemic: Assessing digital literacy and misinformation vulnerability among senior citizens in Vietnam during COVID-19

Abstract

This research examines the digital literacy and misinformation vulnerability among senior citizens in Vietnam during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study aims to understand how senior citizens navigate the infodemic and identify factors contributing to their susceptibility to misinformation.
The study utilizes participant observation and interview methodologies to explore the experiences of senior citizens with digital literacy and the impact of COVID-19 misinformation. The findings highlight the challenges faced by senior citizens in accessing accurate information and discerning misinformation. Lack of familiarity with news and social media platforms, and concerns regarding trust, privacy, and security hinder their digital literacy skills. Moreover, senior citizens are particularly vulnerable to misinformation, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to enhance their digital literacy and empower them to navigate the infodemic effectively.

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has not only brought about significant health challenges but also created an ‘infodemic’ characterized by a flood of information, both accurate and misleading, surrounding the virus and its impact. During these times of crisis, senior citizens have emerged as a vulnerable group that requires particular attention and support. While efforts to educate citizens about the effects and treatments of COVID-19 are crucial, it is important to recognize that senior citizens face unique challenges when it comes to navigating the infodemic and discerning accurate information from misinformation.
This research aims to assess the digital literacy and misinformation vulnerability among senior citizens in Vietnam during the COVID-19 pandemic. While senior citizens have received increased attention as a vulnerable group during this health crisis, they exhibit a higher susceptibility to misinformation. This susceptibility presents a unique challenge in educating them about the virus and its implications. With the world rapidly transitioning to digital platforms for information dissemination, social connections, and access to essential services, senior citizens encounter various barriers that impede their effective engagement with digital technologies. These barriers include limited access to technology, unfamiliarity with devices and software, as well as concerns related to trust, privacy, and security, all of which contribute to the complexity of the situation. This study’s central research question is: “What factors contribute to the vulnerability to misinformation of Vietnamese senior citizens?”.
By assessing the digital literacy and misinformation vulnerability among senior citizens in Vietnam during the COVID-19 pandemic, this research aims to contribute to understanding their unique challenges in the midst of misinformation and disinformation, offer valuable suggestions to help them overcome these challenges during times of crisis.

Literature Review

This research explores the digital literacy of senior citizens in Vietnam during the COVID-19 pandemic. The rapid advancement of technology and the increased reliance on digital platforms during the pandemic have highlighted the importance of digital literacy for all age groups, including senior citizens (Davies et al., 2021). However, persons who need support the most, in particular older persons and those in social deprivation, are frequently the least inclined to use digital networks (Davies et al., 2021; Litchfield et al., 2021; Moore & Hancock, 2020). Previous studies have underscored the need for tailored interventions, policy support, and community-based programs to enhance the digital literacy skills of senior citizens in Vietnam and ensure their active participation in the digital society.
The research on senior citizens’ reliance on digital versus non-digital channels for health information offers a nuanced perspective. The propensity of senior citizens to rely on digital versus non-digital mediums when seeking health information is influenced by several psychological determinants, including trust in online sources, perceived usefulness of digital tools, and personal confidence in navigating the internet. These factors significantly impact their preferences for obtaining health-related information. For instance, Sheng (2015) found that factors such as demographics, trust in health information websites, perceived usefulness of the Internet, and internal locus of control significantly impact seniors’ use of the Internet for health information. McMillan (2008) identified different types of older online users based on demographic and computer-use factors, as well as health attitudes and behaviors. Pálsdóttir (2016) revealed that senior citizens have low frequency in seeking and communicating about health information on the Internet, and they prefer to receive information rather than share or communicate with others through social media. Rodat (2021) found that seniors in Germany access specific medical websites directly and claim to be able to evaluate the reliability of online health information, but still prefer to consult with doctors when making health-related decisions. In summary, the papers collectively suggest that while some seniors do use digital mediums for health information, there are various factors influencing their preferences, including demographics, trust, perceived usefulness, and health attitudes.

Impact of COVID-19 on senior citizens’ digital engagement

Increased dependency on digital platforms

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increased dependency on digital platforms among senior citizens (Garcia et al., 2021). As physical distancing measures and lockdowns were implemented, many traditional face-to-face activities and services shifted online. This includes accessing information, communicating with family and friends, participating in virtual social events, and accessing essential services like healthcare and shopping (Fisher e al., 2021; Nimrod, 2022). The pandemic has accelerated the need for digital engagement among senior citizens, highlighting the importance of digital literacy and access to technology (Perdana & Mokhtar, 2022; Morrow-Howell et al., 2020).

Social isolation and mental well-being

The pandemic has also brought about social isolation and its impact on the mental well-being of senior citizens (Casper et al., 2021; MacLeod et al., 2021). With restrictions on in-person gatherings and visits, many older adults have experienced increased loneliness and reduced social interactions. Digital platforms have served as a lifeline, enabling them to stay connected with loved ones and participate in virtual support networks. However, those lacking digital literacy skills or access to technology may face further isolation and mental health challenges (Van Jaarsveld, 2020; Zapletal et al., 2023).

Economic and financial inclusion

The pandemic has also highlighted the importance of digital literacy for economic and financial inclusion among senior citizens (Demirgüç-Kunt et al., 2022). As many businesses and services moved online, seniors needed to adapt to digital platforms for tasks like online banking, e-commerce, and accessing government financial support (Al-maaitah et al., 2021). Digital literacy enables older adults to manage their finances, make secure online transactions, and stay informed about government assistance programs (Arner et al., 2020). Without adequate digital skills, senior citizens may face challenges in accessing financial resources and participating fully in the digital economy (Okafor et al., 2022).

Digital or non-digital sources for health-related concerns

The research on senior citizens’ reliance on digital versus non-digital channels for health information offers a nuanced perspective. Pálsdóttir (2016), Rockmann and Gewald (2017) found that regardless of their age group, senior citizens displayed limited engagement with internet-based health information, indicating a slower adaptation to the digitalization of healthcare resources. However, Rodat’s (2021) research in Germany among seniors aged 65-83 demonstrated an active interest in medical topics, with direct access to specific medical websites, suggesting a level of online health information engagement. Campbell’s (2005) findings showed that older adults were open to using the internet for health information but didn’t significantly alter their healthcare participation.
Contrastingly, Medlock et al. (2015) indicated that among senior citizens who utilized the internet, it was their preferred source for health-related information. Those seniors with higher internet usage also balanced it with reliance on traditional paper-based resources. Additionally, Ohme (2019)’s findings indicated that older generations exhibited slightly higher engagement with online news consumption, highlighting their ongoing relevance in political participation. Baik and Willems (2022) focusing on older family caregivers, showed that those with regular healthcare providers were more inclined to use digital health technology, leading to increased confidence in obtaining health information. In summary, these studies collectively suggest that while some senior citizens are beginning to embrace digital platforms for health information, the predominant trend still reflects low internet usage and a preference for traditional healthcare models. These findings emphasize the evolving nature of information access and the need for a diverse approach to ensure access to health information for all demographic groups, underlining the internet’s growing importance in the lives of senior citizens and older generations, especially in the realm of health news consumption. Williams and colleagues (2019) underscore the importance of maintaining diverse sources for health information, recognizing that not all demographic groups trust or utilize the internet for this purpose, ensuring equitable access to health information.
Numerous factors play a pivotal role in influencing whether senior citizens opt for digital or non-digital channels for accessing health information. Sheng (2015) revealed that variables such as demographics, trust in health information websites, the perceived usefulness of the Internet, and an internal locus of control significantly shape seniors’ decision to use the Internet for health-related information. Conversely, Pálsdóttir (2018) indicated that older adults seldom sought digital information, considering its quality to be subpar. However, they recognized professional health websites as a potential means of reaching the older demographic. McMillan (2008) identified distinct categories of older online users based on factors like demographics, computer-use habits, health attitudes, and behaviors. Lastly, Rockmann and Gewald (2017) model introduced an intricate framework that examined the combined influence of health needs, health knowledge, exploratory IT behavior, and expectations of benefits on senior citizens’ use of online health information.
In summary, a comprehensive analysis of the research on senior citizens’ use of digital and non-digital sources for health information reveals a complex picture. While some seniors are beginning to embrace digital platforms, the overarching trend remains a preference for traditional healthcare models and a relatively low utilization of the internet for health information. These findings underscore the evolving nature of information access and emphasize the necessity for a diverse approach to ensure equitable access to health information across various demographic groups. Moreover, they highlight the growing importance of the internet in the lives of senior citizens and older generations, particularly in the context of health news consumption. It is evident that multiple factors, including demographics, trust, and perceived usefulness, influence seniors’ choices in accessing health information.

Digital literacy and senior citizens

Definition of digital literacy

Digital literacy refers to the comprehensive set of skills and competencies required to effectively navigate, utilize, and interact with digital technology, communication tools, and networks. It encompasses the ability to locate, evaluate, use, and create information using digital resources, as well as the capacity to understand and utilize information presented in various formats through computers (Osterman, 2013). Additionally, digital literacy involves the capability to perform tasks proficiently within a digital environment. This includes skills such as reading and interpreting media, manipulating data and images digitally, and evaluating and applying newfound knowledge acquired from digital platforms (Wolske, 2016). In sum, digital literacy refers to the ability to access, understand, evaluate, and utilize information and communication technologies (ICTs) effectively. It encompasses a range of skills, including basic computer literacy, information literacy, media literacy, and online safety. For senior citizens, digital literacy is crucial in enabling them to navigate the digital world, access online resources, communicate with others, and participate in digital platforms and services (Martínez-Alcala et al., 2021).
Gilster (1997) explored the ongoing changes brought about by the Internet and provides insights on how individuals can effectively harness its potential while adapting to the new challenges it presents. Gilster (1997) emphasizes the importance of our ability to adapt to the Internet as it evolves, as it will shape both the future of the Internet itself and our own futures and his focus is on empowering individuals to navigate and engage with the Internet in a meaningful and informed manner.

Importance of digital literacy for senior citizens

The literature in this area underscores the critical importance of digital literacy in the ongoing battle against the proliferation of misinformation and its associated consequences. Seo et al. (2021) have particularly emphasized the need for heightened awareness and enhanced digital literacy across diverse demographic groups. This approach is vital for safeguarding the integrity of information and for nurturing critical thinking in the digital age.
The importance of digital literacy for senior citizens has become increasingly evident, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic (Martínez-Alcala et al., 2021; Weil et al. 2021). The digital divide has been accentuated, as the world rapidly shifted to online platforms for work, education, healthcare, and social interactions. Senior citizens, who may already face barriers such as limited access to technology and age-related challenges (Mubarak & Suomi, 2022), have been particularly affected by this shift. Nedeljko et al. (2022) found that there is a significant digital divide in older individuals’ digital literacy and competencies, which widened during the coronavirus illness epidemic. Digital literacy is influenced by a number of variables, such as socioeconomic level, internet access, and how well older persons are able to use ICT.
However, as Quan-Haase et al. (2018) noted, the stereotyped views in highlighting that older adults are less engaged and proficient in using digital media is inaccurate. Such stereotype ignores older adults’ differences in usage patterns, skills and attitudes towards the digital world (Comunello et al., 2023).
Digital literacy empowers senior citizens by providing them with opportunities for lifelong learning, social engagement, and access to essential services (Weil et al., 2021). It enhances their ability to communicate with family and friends, seek health information, access online banking, and participate in e-commerce. Furthermore, digital literacy can contribute to the mental well-being of senior citizens by reducing social isolation, improving cognitive abilities through brain-stimulating activities, and promoting a sense of empowerment and independence.
However, without adequate digital literacy skills, senior citizens may face various challenges in utilizing digital technologies effectively (Schäffer, 2007; Wang & Wu, 2022). These challenges range from technical difficulties and lack of familiarity with devices and software to issues related to trust, privacy, and security. Overcoming these challenges requires tailored interventions and support systems that address the specific needs and concerns of senior citizens.
Furthermore, a meta-analysis conducted by Ma et al. (2021) found that the willingness of older persons to use known technology, such as cellphones, is greatest, but the three variables are likely to have an impact on their adoption of novel technologies, such as healthcare systems and gadgets.
Several studies have highlighted the positive impact of digital literacy programs on senior citizens. These programs typically include training sessions, workshops, and mentoring activities to enhance their digital skills and build confidence in using technology (Tan & Chan, 2018). Effective digital literacy programs consider the unique characteristics and preferences of senior citizens, such as the pace of learning, intergenerational learning opportunities, and culturally sensitive approaches.
According to Eshet (2004), digital literacy extends beyond mere software proficiency or device operation, encompassing a wide range of intricate cognitive, motor, sociological, and emotional abilities. Abdulai et al. (2021) conducted a survey among online health consumers in low-income countries to assess their digital literacy skills, including their ability to evaluate and discern reliable COVID-19 information from misinformation. The study also examined the factors influencing digital literacy, such as educational background and internet access. The findings of the study indicate that a significant portion of online health consumers in low-income countries has limited digital literacy skills. Many participants struggled to evaluate the credibility and accuracy of COVID-19 information found online, leading to potential exposure to misinformation and confusion. The study highlights the importance of improving digital literacy skills among online health consumers to ensure they can access accurate and reliable health information during the pandemic (Weil et al., 2021).

Senior citizens at high risk of misinformation impact from social media

The growing numbers of senior citizens, their rapidly increasing adoption of social media and their high levels of voter turnout make their vulnerability to disinformation a matter of special concern (Oxford Analytica, 2021; Lu et al. 2022). Research found that older adults may engage with (read, share, or believe) misinformation at higher rates than others (Munyaka et al., 2022), especially during the pandemic (Banerjee, 2020). Among factors that affect elders’ assessment of the credibility of online information, education and topic involvement are statistically significant factors associated with assessments of message content and source credibility (Seo et al., 2021).
In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted the digital engagement of senior citizens. The increased dependency on digital platforms for accessing information, social interaction, healthcare, and financial services has highlighted the importance of digital literacy and access to technology. Efforts to enhance digital literacy among senior citizens should address the specific challenges faced during the pandemic, including social isolation, access to healthcare, and economic inclusion.
Digital literacy is also viewed as a versatile tool for addressing a spectrum of challenges related to information accuracy, the prevalence of online echo chambers, and the influence of AI-generated content, including deepfakes (Mustak et al., 2023; Benzie & Montasari, 2022). In essence, it is the cornerstone for rectifying issues such as diminished truth discernment, a reduced tendency to share accurate news, and heightened emotional responses to online content, although it may not necessarily lead to a higher prevalence of confirmation bias. The scarcity of digital literacy can pose a significant barrier to improving the overall information well-being of individuals navigating the digital realm (Ali & Qazi, 2022).
Furthermore, the formation of echo chambers, facilitated by social media platforms with the assistance of AI bots, is another pressing concern. This phenomenon, deeply rooted in the Social Identity Theory and driven by factors like homophily and depersonalization, is increasingly acknowledged as perilous due to its potential to not only encourage polarization but also foster radicalization. It becomes evident that digital literacy is a vital countermeasure to mitigate these risks (Risius et al., 2019).
The emergence of deepfakes, AI-generated fabricated audiovisual content, introduces a diverse set of threats, ranging from identity theft to cybersecurity risks. As noted by Nour and Gelfand (2022), these implications extend to national security and personal privacy. Their work underscores the pivotal role of digital literacy in addressing this issue, emphasizing the public’s imperative need to distinguish between authentic and fabricated content (Nour & Gelfand, 2022). In a related study, Seo et al. (2021) identified education and topic involvement as statistically significant factors associated with assessments of message content and source credibility, with content credibility assessments proving to be particularly challenging in comparison to source credibility assessments.
In summary, the research highlighted reinforces the vital role of digital literacy in countering misinformation and disinformation. Digital literacy equips individuals to discern truth from falsehood in an era where AI-driven bots amplify misleading content. It acts as a safeguard against the formation of echo chambers, curtailing polarization and radicalization. Moreover, as deepfakes pose serious threats to personal privacy and national security, digital literacy is an essential defense, enabling people to differentiate authentic content from fabricated information.
The impact of cultural and geographic contexts specific to Vietnam on the digital readiness of senior citizens has been a relatively underexplored area of research. Technological advancements have significantly boosted Internet usage in Vietnam. In the year 2000, only 0.25 percent of the population had Internet access. By January 2023, this number had surged to a remarkable 77.93 million Internet users in Vietnam. It’s worth highlighting that despite 9.3 percent of Vietnam’s population being 65 years or older, only 2.6 percent of social media users in Vietnam are over 65 years old (Briesen et al., 2021). According to Nguyen et al. (2022), sociodemographic characteristics stood out as the most significant factor affecting older individuals’ digital adaptation in Vietnam, primarily due to their dominant role in addressing age-related challenges.
Given these challenges, it is crucial to assess how senior citizens in Vietnam navigate the infodemic during the pandemic and identify the factors that contribute to their vulnerability to misinformation. By understanding their experiences and needs, targeted interventions and support systems can be developed to enhance their digital literacy skills and empower them to effectively navigate the infodemic. This research will contribute to the existing literature by providing insights into the specific challenges faced by senior citizens in Vietnam and informing strategies to promote digital literacy and combat misinformation among this vulnerable population.

Research Design

This research utilized undisguised participant observation and in-depth interview methodologies to explore the experiences of senior citizens in Vietnam with digital literacy and their vulnerability to COVID-19 misinformation. The research aims to gain insights into the participants’ news consumption habits, their ability to discern reliable information from misinformation, and the impact of the infodemic on their understanding and behaviors related to COVID-19.
Participants were selected based on the following criteria:
  • • Age: 60 and above.

  • • Attention to COVID-19 updates: Participants demonstrate an active interest in staying updated with COVID-19 in- formation.

  • • Proficiency in social media: Participants have a level of proficiency in using social media platforms.

  • • Weekly news consumption: Participants have a regular habit of seeking news on any platform at least once a week.

These criteria were put in place to ensure that the participants had relevant experiences and exposure to digital information related to the COVID-19 pandemic.
To begin, the researcher engaged in undisguised participant observation, observing the participants’ news consumption habits and interactions with digital platforms. Undisguised participant observation is when the researcher observing participants’ natural behaviors without concealing the researcher’s presence or intent. This approach allowed for a comprehensive understanding of their information-seeking behaviors and potential exposure to misinformation. The researcher observed each participant one week during their normal news consumption hours, in their natural environment without interfering. Throughout the observation period, the researcher took notes and recorded observations regarding the participants’ news sources, the types of information consumed, and any signs of misinformation.
Based on the observations and interactions during the participant observation phase, in-depth interviews were conducted with each participant. The interviews followed a semi-structured format, which means that while there was a set of predetermined questions and topics, the format allowed for flexibility and in-depth exploration. The questions for the interviews were open-ended and designed to encourage participants to share their perspectives, experiences, and concerns regarding digital literacy and misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. The questions focused on the following topics:
  • • Their news consumption habits and sources;

  • • Their ability to discern reliable information from misinformation;

  • • Their experiences with social media and digital platforms;

  • • Their trust in certain types of information or sources (their preference for and confidence in different kinds of information, such as news from mainstream media, social media, or personal contacts);

  • • The impact of misinformation on their understanding and behaviors related to COVID-19 (i.e., changes in their attitudes, knowledge, and actions related to COVID-19 following their exposure to misinformation);

  • • Their experiences and challenges in navigating the digital world.

Results

A total of 20 senior citizens were observed. Participants were selected based on their attention to COVID-19 updates, proficiency in social media, and weekly news consumption. Those who did not meet these criteria were excluded. In particular, individuals who did not actively look for COVID-19 information, who did not regularly seek news at least once a week or who did not use social media were excluded from the study.

Content and format of information significantly influence the reception of COVID-19 information among senior citizens

One significant factor for misinformation was the use of fake sources claiming expert opinions. The articles, even if featuring anonymous or unverified experts, were perceived as credible news. However, it was observed that individuals claiming to be experts on social media platforms often lack genuine expertise in the field of health and wellness. For instance, one participant frequently cited a social media influencer who claimed to have a background in health sciences but, upon further investigation, we could not verify their formal education or credentials in the field. This influencer’s posts, which included unverified health tips, were widely trusted and shared among the participant’s peer group. This highlights the importance of critically evaluating the credentials and background of individuals claiming to be experts before trusting the information they provide.
Additionally, the results indicate that the inclusion of human stories in the information also influences the reception of COVID-19 misinformation among seniors. Articles that appeal to emotions and personal experiences garnered significant levels of liking among participants. For example, stories about ‘miraculous’ recoveries from COVID-19 using unproven home remedies were generally believed by participants, demonstrating the impact of emotional appeal. However, this emotional connection often overrides logical thinking, making the participants more susceptible to misinformation. Emotions, such as empathy and altruism, play a crucial role in the spread of information, with people being more likely to share information that resonates with their own experiences or touches their hearts. Misinformation producers exploit these emotions to increase trust and blur the line between true and false information.
The translation of health information from foreign sources was another content factor that influenced the reception of misinformation. Most participants expressed trust in translated health articles from foreign newspapers and magazines, assuming that they contain more advanced or novel research. However, it is crucial to note that not all sources provide accurate information, and translations can introduce biases or alter the original message. Participants lacked the habit of verifying and tracing the sources cited in newspapers, contributing to their vulnerability to misinformation.
Furthermore, the interviews show the impact of visuals, including images and videos, on the perception of information. The participants, who are older social media users, tend to trust information more when it includes visual elements. However, misinformation producers can manipulate visuals through techniques like photoshopping, selective cropping, or using outdated images to create a misleading narrative. Senior participants demonstrated a high level of trust in information accompanied by pictures and videos, despite their limited ability to evaluate false news. Developing skills to trace and verify images and videos shared on social media platforms becomes crucial to combatting misinformation.

Trust in social media news sources influences senior’s reception of COVID-19 information

The interview findings indicate that trust in social media news sources plays a significant role in shaping the reception of COVID-19 information among senior citizens in Vietnam. While senior participants exhibit a high level of trust in mainstream media, this trust is inversely proportional to their ability to evaluate news accurately. The reliance on official news sites is driven by the need to stay updated on pandemic-related information, such as the number of cases, preventive measures, and government initiatives. However, despite the high trust in mainstream media, seniors feel that these channels do not fully meet their information needs. Some expressed concerns about the lack of timely and attractive information, leading to a decreased trust in the government’s official news sites.
Interestingly, there is a segment of elderly individuals who prefer to access COVID-19 information from general news sites (which are online platforms that compile and aggregate news from various sources, often without thorough verification, leading to potential misinformation), rather than mainstream press outlets. These general news sites offer a variety of news sources and often present sensational and trending news that may not have yet appeared in mainstream media. Such sites are favored by seniors for their ability to provide alternative information sources. However, it is important to note that these aggregator sites do not verify or validate the information they aggregate, leading to a potential risk of encountering misinformation.
Another influential factor is the personalization algorithm employed by social networking platforms. The algorithm suggests content based on user’s preferences, interests, and previous interactions. Seniors who tend to engage with certain types of content will receive recommendations and suggestions aligned with their personal interests. For instance, a participant who frequently engaged with health-related content was continuously recommended similar articles, reinforcing their existing beliefs and limiting exposure to diverse information. Consequently, seniors may develop a higher level of trust in the information that aligns with their needs and values. This personalized information delivery can create a filter bubble, limiting the exposure of seniors to a broader range of information and potentially reinforcing existing biases.
Moreover, there are several biases associated with age, experience, and thinking among seniors. Some participants expressed self-doubt about their cognitive abilities, assuming that their age prevents them from critically evaluating information effectively. Additionally, there was a perception that capacity-building courses were unnecessary because they believed they already possessed sufficient knowledge. These biases, along with a reluctance to embrace new technologies, hindered their access to diverse information sources and their understanding of the importance of digital literacy skills.
The findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to enhance seniors’ digital literacy and critical evaluation skills. Efforts should focus on increasing awareness of reliable news sources, improving media literacy, and promoting a better understanding of social media algorithms and their potential impact on information consumption. Addressing biases associated with age and learning new technologies is crucial in empowering seniors to navigate the infodemic effectively.

Senior citizens are easily influenced by their groups and peers

During the COVID-19 epidemic, the proliferation of chat groups online has become prominent. These groups not only provide information but also facilitate daily activities such as grocery shopping, food delivery, and online medical consultations. The participants reported being members of multiple chat groups, which they accessed daily to exchange and share information. These groups cover a wide range of topics and interests, and they are active, diverse, and open to discussion. However, the information shared within these groups is difficult to verify, as it often comes from individual group members who may not be reliable sources. False information can easily spread within these closed groups, as participants tend to have similar interests and opinions, making it challenging to detect and challenge misinformation.
The access and response to information within these social networking groups are strongly influenced by “key opinion leaders.” Opinion leaders can be ordinary individuals, celebrities, or experts who shape public opinion, attitudes, and behaviors. Participating seniors in the interviews tend to trust information shared by these opinion leaders without verifying it. For example, one participant mentioned frequently trusting health advice shared by a popular local celebrity on Facebook, despite not verifying the information with other sources. Another participant cited a well-known online doctor, whose qualifications were never checked, as a primary source of COVID-19 information.
The participants struggle to find reliable sources to follow, and expert opinions in the mainstream media are limited and often provide general information rather than specific guidance. As a result, they may turn to unverified “virtual experts” or specialist channels for medical and supplement advertising, which are considered sources of expertise despite their questionable credibility. For instance, one participant expressed frustration with the vague advice given on traditional news platforms. The researchers observed that he instead followed a Facebook groups dedicated to alternative medicine and took advice from the groups, without checking the credibility of these sources.
These findings emphasize the exposure of senior citizens to the influence of their community and peers in the digital age. They tend to trust information shared within their social networks and may overlook the need for critical evaluation and verification. To address this vulnerability, interventions should focus on promoting digital literacy and critical thinking skills among seniors. Enhancing their ability to evaluate information sources, identify reliable experts, and critically assess information within group settings is crucial. Additionally, efforts should be made to provide accessible and trustworthy sources of information from reputable experts in the field, addressing the information gaps identified by seniors during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Discussion

The findings revealed significant factors influencing the reception of COVID-19 information among senior citizens. The content and format of information played a crucial role, with the presence of expert opinions and emotional appeal affecting seniors’ perception of credibility. Additionally, trust in social media news sources significantly influenced their reception of information, and the personalization algorithms on these platforms created “filter bubbles.” Senior citizens were also easily influenced by their social groups, especially within online chat groups, which posed challenges in verifying information.
The study confirms the importance of digital literacy for senior citizens. It emphasizes that digital literacy skills are crucial for senior citizens to navigate the digital world, access online resources, communicate with others, and participate in digital platforms and services (Martínez-Alcala et al., 2021). These findings are consistent with previous research that has highlighted the positive impact of digital literacy programs on senior citizens (Tan & Chan, 2018). Effective digital literacy programs consider the unique characteristics and preferences of senior citizens, such as the pace of learning and intergenerational learning opportunities.
The study also highlights the challenges faced by senior citizens in utilizing digital technologies effectively. These challenges range from a lack of familiarity with the news and social media platforms to issues related to trust, privacy, and security (Schäffer, 2007; Wang & Wu, 2022). These findings resonate with previous studies that have identified similar challenges faced by senior citizens in accessing and using digital technologies (Nedeljko et al., 2022). Overcoming these challenges requires tailored interventions and support systems that address the specific needs and concerns of senior citizens.
Furthermore, the study underscores the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the digital engagement of senior citizens. It reveals that senior citizens have become increasingly dependent on digital platforms is supported by several aspects of the study. The research highlights that seniors actively engage with online chat groups for various purposes, including accessing information related to COVID-19. These groups have become prominent during the pandemic, and seniors rely on them not only for information but also for daily activities. This dependence on online platforms for both information and practical needs indicates an increased reliance on digital resources (Garcia et al., 2021). In the context of the literature discussed in the preceding sections, this finding is in line with the broader trend observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Previous research has indicated that seniors turned to digital technologies for information, social interaction, and accessing various services, such as telehealth (Fisher et al., 2021). The pandemic has accelerated this shift, underscoring the importance of digital platforms for seniors. This growing dependence on digital resources also reinforces the significance of digital literacy programs and support systems tailored to the needs of senior citizens.
Moreover, and most importantly, the study also highlights the vulnerability of senior citizens to misinformation, particularly through social media platforms. The study reveals that seniors often trust information from social media platforms and unverified experts. They tend to overlook the importance of verifying the credentials and expertise of individuals who claim to be experts, as well as the credibility of the sources they encounter. This trend aligns with the literature discussed earlier, which has shown that seniors may be more susceptible to misinformation, often due to their limited ability to critically evaluate online content (Banerjee, 2020). This misplaced trust highlights a lack of digital literacy, as they struggle to distinguish reliable sources from unreliable ones.
The research indicates that seniors are active participants in online chat groups, where misinformation can easily proliferate. They often find it difficult to verify the information shared within these groups. This aligns with the broader literature on older adults’ digital literacy, which highlights their susceptibility to online scams, false information, and difficulties in evaluating the credibility of sources (Munyaka et al., 2022).
To sum up, the findings from this study support the lack of digital literacy among senior citizens, and these findings are in line with prior literature that has consistently highlighted the challenges seniors face in critically evaluating online information, verifying sources, and recognizing misinformation, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.
As a result, on the practical level, this study recommends targeted interventions to improve digital literacy skills through policy support. Interventions should address the influence of emotional appeal and unverified expert opinions by teaching seniors how to critically evaluate the credibility of sources. Moreover, given the influence of social media groups and key opinion leaders, digital literacy programs should include components on identifying and verifying reliable sources of information, and recognizing the potential biases introduced by social media platforms. When offered comprehensive digital literacy training, senior citizens would be equipped for critical assessments of credibility and accuracy of the information encountered online, and hence be less prone to misinformation.

Conclusion

This study underscores the critical need for digital literacy among senior citizens, particularly due to several factors making them vulnerable to misinformation. Tailored interventions are essential to enhance their digital skills and protect them from the infodemic. The most substantial finding revolves around the multifaceted challenges faced by senior citizens in accessing and effectively utilizing digital technologies. These challenges encompass issues of trust, privacy, security, and the ability to critically evaluate online information sources. Importantly, the study highlights that seniors’ reliance on digital platforms for information and communication has increased during the pandemic, underscoring the essential role of digital literacy in their lives.
However, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. The sample size of 20 participants may not fully represent the diversity of senior citizens in Vietnam, and the findings may not be generalizable to the entire population and may be subject to biases and inaccuracies. Future research could consider a larger and more diverse sample to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the digital literacy and misinformation vulnerability among senior citizens in Vietnam.
In conclusion, this study highlights the significance of digital literacy for senior citizens in Vietnam during the COVID-19 pandemic. The digital landscape has become an integral part of their lives, especially during the pandemic, emphasizing the need for tailored support and interventions. By addressing these digital literacy challenges and empowering senior citizens with the skills to navigate the digital world effectively, we can reduce their vulnerability to misinformation, foster active participation in the digital society, and ensure their well-being in an increasingly connected world.

Notes

Data Availability Statement

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Funding Information

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

REFERENCES

Abdulai, A. F., Tiffere, A. H., Adam, F., & Kabanunye, M. M. (2021). COVID-19 information-related digital literacy among online health consumers in a low-income country. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 145, 104322,
crossref pmid
Ali, A., & Qazi, I. A. (2022). Digital literacy and vulnerability to misinformation: Evidence from Facebook users in Pakistan. Journal of Quantitative Description: Digital Media, 2.
pmid pmc
Al-maaitah, T. A., Majah, T., Alsoud, M., & Al-maaitah, D. A. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on the electronic commerce users behavior. Journal of Contemporary Issues in Business and Government, 27(1), 784-793.
Arner, D. W., Barberis, J. N., Walker, J., Buckley, R. P., Dahdal, A. M., & Zetzsche, D. A. (2020). Digital finance & the COVID-19 crisis. University of Hong Kong Faculty of Law Research Paper, (2020/017)
Baik, D., & Willems, E. (2022). Use of digital health technology for seeking health information among older family caregivers. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, 290, 997-999.
crossref pmid
Banerjee, D. (2020). ‘Age and ageism in COVID-19’: Elderly mental health-care vulnerabilities and needs. Asian Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 102154,
crossref pmid pmc
Benzie, A., & Montasari, R. (2022). Artificial intelligence and the spread of mis-and disinformation. In R. Montasari (Ed.), Artificial intelligence and national security (pp. 1-18). Springer: Cham.
Briesen, D., Pham, Q. M., Vu, D. P., Nguyen, T. T. H., Nguyen, T. T. H., Tran, D. H., & Nguyen, T. T. T. (2021). Country report Vietnam 2021 - Vietnam as a digital society. Thanh Nien Publishing. https://southeastasia.hss.de/publications/country-report-vietnam-2021-vietnamas-a-digital-society-pub2217/
Campbell, R. J. (2005). Consumer informatics: elderly persons and the internet. Perspectives in Health Information Management, 2(2).
Casper, J. M., Bocarro, J. N., & Lothary, A. F. (2021). An examination of pickleball participation, social connections, and psychological well-being among seniors during the COVID-19 pandemic. World Leisure Journal, 63(3), 330-346.
crossref
Comunello, F., Mulargia, S., & Ieracitano, F. (2023). “Forever young?”: Digital technology, ageism and the (non-) ideal user. In A. Rosales & M. Fernández-Ardèvol & J. Svensson (Eds.), Digital ageism: How it operates and approaches to tackling it Routledge.
Davies, A. R., Honeyman, M., & Gann, B. (2021). Addressing the digital inverse care law in the time of COVID-19: potential for digital technology to exacerbate or mitigate health inequalities. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(4), e21726,
crossref pmid pmc
Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Klapper, L., Singer, D., & Ansar, S. (2022). The global findex database 2021: Financial inclusion, digital payments, and resilience in the age of COVID-19. World Bank Publications. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/globalfindex/Report
Eshet, Y. (2004). Digital literacy: A conceptual framework for survival skills in the digital era. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 13(1), 93-106.
Fisher, C., Park, S., Lee, J. Y., Holland, K., & John, E. (2021). Older people’s news dependency and social connectedness. Media International Australia, 181(1), 183-196.
crossref pdf
Garcia, K. R., Rodrigues, L., Pereira, L., Busse, G., Irbe, M., Almada, M., & Costa, E. (2021). Improving the digital skills of older adults in a COVID-19 pandemic environment. Educational Gerontology, 47(5), 196-206.
crossref
Gilster, P. (1997). Digital literacy. Wiley.
Litchfield, I., Shukla, D., & Greenfield, S. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on the digital divide: A rapid review. BMJ open, 11(10), e053440,
crossref pmid pmc
Lu, X., Head, M., Yang, J., & Tariq, A. (2022). An investigation of misinformation susceptibility of older adults: A persuasive perspective. SIGHCI 2022 Proceedings, 27.
MacLeod, S., Tkatch, R., Kraemer, S., Fellows, A., McGinn, M., Schaeffer, J., & Yeh, C. S. (2021). COVID-19 era social isolation among older adults. Geriatrics, 6(2), 52,
crossref pmid pmc
Ma, Q., Chan, A. H., & Teh, P. L. (2021). Insights into older adults’ technology acceptance through meta-analysis. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 37(11), 1049-1062.
crossref
Martínez-Alcala, C. I., Rosales-Lagarde, A., Pérez-Pérez, Y. M., Lopez-Noguerola, J. S., Bautista-Díaz, M. L., & Agis-Juarez, R. A. (2021). The effects of Covid-19 on the digital literacy of the elderly: norms for digital inclusion. Frontiers in Education, 6, 1-19.
McMillan, S. J., & Macias, W. (2008). Strengthening the safety net for online seniors: factors influencing differences in health information seeking among older internet users. Journal of Health Communication, 13(8), 778-792.
crossref pmid
Medlock, S., Eslami, S., Askari, M., Arts, D. L., Sent, D., De Rooij, S. E., & Abu-Hanna, A. (2015). Health information-seeking behavior of seniors who use the internet: A survey. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17(1), e10,
crossref pmid pmc
Moore, R. C., & Hancock, J. T. (2020). Older adults, social technologies, and the coronavirus pandemic: Challenges, strengths, and strategies for support. Social Media + Society, 6(3), 1-5.
crossref pdf
Morrow-Howell, N., Galucia, N., & Swinford, E. (2020). Recovering from the COVID-19 pandemic: A focus on older adults. Journal of Aging & Social Policy, 32(4-5), 526-535.
crossref pmid
Mubarak, F., & Suomi, R. (2022). Elderly forgotten? Digital exclusion in the information age and the rising grey digital divide. The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 59.
crossref pdf
Munyaka, I., Hargittai, E., & Redmiles, E. (2022). The misinformation paradox: Older adults are cynical about news media, but engage with it anyway. Journal of Online Trust and Safety, 1(4), 1-16.
Mustak, M., Salminen, J., Mäntymäki, M., Rahman, A., & Dwivedi, Y. K. (2023). Deepfakes: Deceptions, mitigations, and opportunities. Journal of Business Research, 154, 113368,
crossref
Nedeljko, M., Bogataj, D., Perović, B. T., & Kaučič, B. M. K. (2022). Digital literacy during the coronavirus pandemic in older adults: Literature review and research agenda. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 55(39), 153-158.
crossref pmid pmc
Nguyen, T. X. H., Tran, T. B. N., Dao, T. B., Barysheva, G., Nguyen, C. T., Nguyen, A. H., & Lam, T. S. (2022). Elderly people’s adaptation to the evolving digital society: A case study in Vietnam. Social Sciences, 11(8), 324,
crossref
Nimrod, G. (2022). Technostress in a hostile world: Older internet users before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Aging & Mental Health, 26(3), 526-533.
crossref pmid
Nour, N., & Gelfand, J. (2022). Deepfakes: A digital transformation leads to misinformation. GL - Conference Series: Conference Proceedings, 11.
Ohme, J. (2019). Updating citizenship? The effects of digital media use on citizenship understanding and political participation. Information, Communication & Society, 22(13), 1903-1928.
crossref
Okafor, L., Khalid, U., & Gopalan, S. (2022). COVID-19 economic policy response, resilience and tourism recovery. Annals of Tourism Research Empirical Insights, 3(2), 100073,
crossref pmc
Osterman, M. D. (2013). Digital literacy: Definition, theoretical framework, and competencies. In M. S. Plakhotnik & S. M. Nielsen & D. M. Pane (Eds.), Proceedings of the 11th Annual College of Education & GSN Research Conference (pp. 135-141). Miami:Florida International University: https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1213&context=sferc
Oxford Analytica (2021). Online disinformation is greater risk for older users. Emerald Expert Briefings, (oxan-db). https://dailybrief.oxan.com/Analysis/DB263856/Online-disinformation-is-greater-risk-for-older-users
Pálsdóttir, Á. (2016). Senior citizens, digital information seeking and use of social media for healthy lifestyle. Human Aspects of IT for the Aged Population. Springer International Publishing.
pmid pmc
Pálsdóttir, Á. (2018). Senior citizens science literacy and health self-efficacy beliefs. Communications in Computer and Information Science, 810, 98-406.
Perdana, A., & Mokhtar, I. A. (2022). Seniors’ adoption of digital devices and virtual event platforms in Singapore during Covid-19. Technology in Society, 68, 101817,
crossref pmid pmc
Quan-Haase, A., Williams, C., Kicevski, M., Elueze, I., & Wellman, B. (2018). Dividing the grey divide: Deconstructing myths about older adults’ online activities, skills, and attitudes. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(9), 1207-1228.
crossref pdf
Risius, M., Aydinguel, O., & Haug, M. (2019). Towards an understanding of conspiracy echo chambers on Facebook. Proceedings of the 27th European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS). Universitätsbibliothek Mannheim
Rockmann, R., & Gewald, H. (2017). Jan;Older adults’ use of online health Information-do they even try? Proceedings of the 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. https://aisel.aisnet.org/hicss-50/hc/senior_use_of_health_it/6/
crossref
Rodat, S. (2021). Seeking online health-related information by German seniors: A qualitative study. Journal of Human Environment and Health Promotion, 7(2), 83-89.
crossref pdf
Schäffer, B. (2007). The digital literacy of seniors. Research in Comparative and International Education, 2(1), 29-42.
crossref pdf
Seo, H., Blomberg, M., Altschwager, D., & Vu, H. T. (2021). Vulnerable populations and misinformation: A mixed-methods approach to underserved older adults’ online information assessment. New Media & Society, 23(7), 2012-2033.
crossref pdf
Shao, C., Ciampaglia, G. L., Varol, O., Yang, K. C., Flammini, A., & Menczer, F. (2018). The spread of low-credibility content by social bots. Nature Communications, 9(1), 1-9.
crossref pmid pmc pdf
Sheng, X., & Simpson, P. M. (2015). Health care information seeking and seniors: determinants of internet use. Health Marketing Quarterly, 32(1), 96-112.
crossref pmid
Tan, K. S. Y. Chan, C. M. L. (2018). Unequal access: Applying Bourdieu’s practice theory to illuminate the challenges of ICT use among senior citizens in Singapore. Journal of Aging Studies, 47, 123-131.
crossref pmid
Van Jaarsveld, G. M. (2020). The effects of COVID-19 among the elderly population: A case for closing the digital divide. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11.
Wang, C. H., & Wu, C. L. (2022). Bridging the digital divide: The smart TV as a platform for digital literacy among the elderly. Behaviour & Information Technology, 41(12), 2546-2559.
crossref
Weil, J., Kamber, T., Glazebrook, A., Giorgi, M., & Ziegler, K. (2021). Digital inclusion of older adults during COVID-19: Lessons from a case study of older adults technology services (OATS). Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 64(6), 643-655.
crossref pmid
Williams, S. L., Ames, K., & Lawson, C. (2019). Preferences and trust in traditional and non-traditional sources of health information-a study of middle to older aged Australian adults. Journal of Communication in Healthcare, 12(2), 134-142.
crossref
Wolske, M. (2016, May 27). A growing understanding of digital literacy. Digital Literacy for All Learners. http://publish.illinois.edu/digital-literacy4all/a-growing-understanding-of-digital-literacy/
Zapletal, A., Wells, T., Russell, E., & Skinner, M. W. (2023). On the triple exclusion of older adults during COVID-19: Technology, digital literacy and social isolation. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 8(1), 100511,
crossref
TOOLS
METRICS Graph View
  • 0 Crossref
  •  0 Scopus
  • 111 View
  • 6 Download
Related articles


Editorial Office
1 Hallymdaehak-gil, Chuncheon 24252, Republic of Korea
Tel: +82-33-248-3255    E-mail: editor@hnmr.org                

Copyright © 2024 by Health & New Media Research Institute.

Developed in M2PI